Mountains of Central Asia

Biodiversity
Flagship Species
Threats
Conservation

The Mountains of Central Asia Hotspot consists of two of Asia’s major mountain ranges, the Pamir (including the Pamir-Alai) and the Tien Shan. These are situated within Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, western China, extreme northeastern Afghanistan, and a small part of Turkmenistan. The total area covered is about 863 362 km². The highest peak, Kongur, in the Chinese Pamir, rises to 7 719 m; four others are above 7 000 m and many more exceed 6 500 m. Glaciers number well over 20 000 and their total extent covers around 18 000 km². The mountains were mainly formed by folding due to tectonic movements during the Caledonian, Hercynian, and Alpine orogenic (or mountain-building) periods. Some features also result from faulting and from volcanic activity. The hotspot includes major desert basins, the largest of which is the Fergana Valley.

The elevated massif of the Pamir was known to early Persian geographers as Bam-i-Dunya, or “roof of the world” and is situated at the center of several great ranges. The Tien Shan lie adjacent to the north, the Hindu Kush to the southwest, the Karakoram to the southeast, and the Kun Lun to the east. The Pamir extend east to the isolated Muztagh Ata Massif in western China and south to the Wakhan Valley of northeastern Afghanistan. The northern rim of the Pamir is formed by the Trans-Alai Range that drops steeply to the Alai Valley, a deep fault trench carrying the waters of a major tributary of the Amu Darya, and dividing the Pamir from the Gissar-Alai mountain system.

The Eastern Pamir have a mean elevation of over 4 000 m and are plateau-like in character, with limited elevational variation and even relief. The surface is crossed by broad, shallow, valleys or pamir, that give the name to the whole range. The Western Pamir, by contrast, are characterized by sharp ridges and steep slopes cut by deep valleys and gorges. They have great elevational variation and typical alpine relief. The Western Pamir are heavily glaciated, and include the Fedchenko Glacier, which is over 75 km in length and one of the two longest glaciers in the world outside the polar regions. The highest peaks in the Pamir are also situated in this part of the range: Garmo, formerly Peak Communism (7 498 m), and Peak Lenin (7 165 m). To the west and southwest, a series of ridges radiates out into the desert and these extend across the Pyanj River into Badakhshan Province of northern Afghanistan.

The Pamir-Alai Mountains, including the Gissaro-Alai system, lie between the Pamir and the Fergana Valley, a deeply downfaulted desert basin, about 300 km long and 150 km wide. The Gissaro-Alai system extends roughly northeastwards to join the Tien Shan. Its ridges are generally around 5 000 m.

To the north of the Fergana Valley, the Tien Shan—Chinese for “heaven” or “sky”— Mountains extend for 2 500 km from west to east. The Tien Shan are made up of a complex series of ranges and are around 300 km wide in the center, narrowing at the eastern and western ends. The highest peaks are located in a central cluster on the borders of China, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan, and include Peak Pobeda or Tuomuer Feng (7 439 m) and Han Tengri (6 995 m). The Inylchek Glacier, over 50 km long and the largest in the Tien Shan, is also located in this part of the range. Across the fertile Ili Valley, the Borohoro Shan links the Dzungarian Alatau (4 464 m) Range to the Tien Shan. Glaciers occupy more than 10 000 km² and occur along most of the range, east to the Bogda Shan in the Chinese Tien Shan. The central Tien Shan, with a mean altitude of over 3 000 m, contains a high, uplifted massif that shares some of the same landscape features as the Eastern Pamir. On the northern side of the Tien Shan, lower arid ranges such as the Nuratau, Chu-Ili, and Karatau run away northwestwards into the desert. The Tien Shan drains mainly to the north, and the many streams plunging down the steep northern slopes have formed alluvial deposits on the plains below which provide sites for settlements; several major population centers are located there.

The climate in this region is generally arid. The Tien Shan acts as a climatic divide and intercepts moist winter air from the north and west, and prevents it from reaching the hyperarid Tarim Basin to the south. Precipitation falls mainly in winter and spring, and varies from over 1 500 mm in the Gissar Range in the west of the hotspot, to below 100 mm in the Eastern Pamir. The southwest of the area —the western parts of the Tien Shan and of the Pamir-Alai— is influenced by subtropical air and also enjoys the mildest winters. Temperatures decrease to the east, although there are considerable variations due to altitude. The high plateaus of the Eastern Pamir and central Tien Shan are the coldest areas, having an annual mean temperature below zero and a very short growing season. Winter temperatures there may reach –40°C, and discontinuous patches of permafrost occur.

The geological origin of the mountains, the wide altitudinal range, and the extreme climatic variation have combined to produce great landscape and biotic diversity. Altitudinal zonation throughout the hotspot is not uniform, and there is no continuous forest belt. The number, extent, and sequence of vegetation zones vary across the hotspot depending on temperature and moisture gradients, slope aspect, and altitude and latitude.

Desert, semidesert, and arid steppe vegetation types predominate on all the lower slopes, foothills, and in some of the outlying ranges, as well as in major basins such as the Fergana Valley and the basin of Issyk-Kul Lake. Common plants here include species of widespread genera such as Artemisia, Salsola, and Ephedra, as well as annual grasses such as Poa and Festuca spp. In the Ili Valley and a few other places, patches of riverine woodland survive, composed of poplar (Populus talassica), ash (Fraxinus sogdiana), an endemic apple (Malus sieversii), apricot (Prunus armeniaca), Eleagnus, tamarisks (Tamarix spp.), and willows (Salix spp.).

Steppe communities, dominated by various species of grasses and herbs, occur at higher altitudes. A distinctive type of tall-grass steppe, characterized by Elytrigia trichophora and Hordeum bulbosum, occurs in the western Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai. Shrub communities are widespread in the lower steppe zone and may form dense thickets in gorges. Species present include hawthorns (Crataegus pontica, C. turkestanica), Cotoneaster melanocarpa, Euonymus semenovii, Lonicera spp., Rosa spp., and Berberis spp., with some pistachio (Pistacia vera) and iron tree or hackberry (Celtis caucasica). The area occupied by shrubs has declined markedly due to cutting for fuelwood.

A type of walnut-fruit forest unique to Central Asia grows above the steppe zone in warm, sheltered places in the western Pamir-Alai and Tien Shan. These are very diverse and are composed of walnut (Juglans regia), almonds (Amygdalus communis and A. bucharensis), pears (Pyrus korshinskyi and P. regelii), plums (Prunus sogdiana and P. ferganica), cherry (Cerasus mahaleb), and apple, along with maples (Acer turkestanicum and A. semenovii). A few Chinese walnut (Juglans cathayana) trees survive at one locality in the eastern Tien Shan. This valuable and ancient forest type contains ancestors of domestic fruit varieties and is an important storehouse of wild genetic diversity. Some of the surviving walnut trees are estimated to be 800 years old. The area occupied by this habitat has greatly declined, with around 90% lost during the last 50 years.

Spruce forests occur on moist northern slopes of the Tien Shan, the only coniferous forest type in the Mountains of Central Asia. These occur sporadically along most of the range, east as far as the Karlik Tag. They grow in a broad altitude band between 1 700 m and 2 700 m and are dominated by the endemic Schrenk’s spruce (Picea schrenkiana). Some silver fir (Abies semenovii) occurs and associated species include the endemic Tien Shan rowan (Sorbus tianshanica), aspen (Populus tremula), willow (Salix xerophila), and birches (Betula spp.). Stands of closed-canopy forest are found in patches of varying size, with the largest on the Kyrgyz Range. More open stands also occur in a forestmeadow mosaic.

Open juniper or archa forest occurs widely between 900 m and 2 800 m. In the Tien Shan it grows above the spruce belt and is composed of Juniperus seravschanica, J. turkestanica, and J. semiglobosa. Juniper woods are also found at lower altitudes in the Pamir-Alai and Western Pamir.

Subalpine and alpine meadows occur from 2 000–4 000 m and above in the western part of the mountains. Plant cover is high, with a tight sward made up of grasses such as Poa alpina, sedges (Carex and Kobresia spp.) and carpeted with a rich variety of herbs including many endemic species. The fritillary (Rhinopetalum stenantherum), gentians (Gentiana spp.), globeflower (Trollius dshungaricus), primulas (Primula spp.), tulips (Tulipa spp.), anemones (e.g., Anemone protracta), louseworts (Pedicularis spp.), and aconites (Aconitum talassicum, A. leucostomum) are prominent among them. These meadows are at their most attractive in early summer when the flowers are in full bloom. In drier areas of the Pamir and central Tien Shan, the montane meadows are replaced by high-altitude steppes, characterized by grasses such as Festuca valesiaca, Poa attenuata, species of Stipa and Puccinellia, sedges (Carex and Kobresia spp.), together with a rather sparse cover of xerophytic perennial herbs.

Vegetation cover and plant diversity declines rapidly as one approaches the upper limits of plant cover, and cushion plants and those with low rosettes that can withstand the high winds, cold temperatures, and aridity become more common. Acantholimon diapensioides is the most widespread cushion plant and species of Saxifraga, Androsace, Rhodiola, Saussurea, and Tanacetum are also frequent. At 4 000 to 4 500 m, even more hardy perennials are found, such as Thylacospermum caespitosum, whose large, tight cushions resemble a moss more than a herbaceous plant, and Dryadanthe tetrandra. Snow patch plants also include attractive species, such as the alp lily (Lloydia serotina), the large, pale blue and white globeflower (Trollius lilacinus), and several crucifers (Draba spp.). At 4 200–4 500 m in the Eastern Pamir and central Tien Shan, the vegetation has a tundra-like character similar to Tibet, with sedge meadows dominated by species of Kobresia and Carex in mesic areas along valley bottoms. Above this, there only a few lichens and rare algal films on some glaciers.

The main ethnic groups in the region are Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Uzbek, Uighur, and Tajik. The Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Uzbek, and Uighur live throughout the mountains of Central Asia and speak a series of Turkic languages. The other major ethnic groups are the Tajiks and Mountain Tajiks, who inhabit the Pamir and parts of Pamir-Alai. They are subdivided into a number of groups, one of which is descended from the ancient Sogdians, and speak a series of dialects belonging to the eastern Iranian group of languages. Wakhi-speaking communities live in northeastern Afghanistan and neighboring areas of China. There are also a small number of Mongols and there is a Mongol county in the eastern Tien Shan. Added to these are many Russians in the western part of the area and Chinese in the eastern Tien Shan, especially in major towns and oases in the plains surrounding the ranges. Livestock herding (mainly sheep and goats), with camels at lower and yaks at higher altitudes, has traditionally been important among the peoples of these mountains. The Fergana and Ili valleys are heavily cultivated, with cotton an important crop in Fergana. Many people moved out of the mountains during the communist era to work in cotton communes.

Biodiversity

The flora of this hotspot is a mix of Boreal, Siberian, Mongolian, Indo-Himalayan, and Iranian elements. Over 5 500 species of higher plants are known, around 1 500 (27%) of which are endemic. There are 64 endemic genera, of which 21 are from the Umbelliferae and 12, from the Compositae. Plant species richness and the number of endemics vary widely throughout the area covered. The Karatau Mountains, a low desert range (2 176 m) that runs north from the Tien Shan, contains 1 700 species and 153 endemics, and the Dzhungarian Alatau, a relatively small range at the northern end of the Tien Shan, rising to only 4 464 m, holds 2 130 species including several of Siberian origin (Davis et al. 1995). The Pamiro-Alai contain over 4 000 species, while the Eastern Pamir have only 700, mostly species with Central Asian affinities (Davis et al. 1995). These include endemic high-altitude species such as Braya pamirica, Oxytropis bella, and Astragalus alitshuri.

The endemic flora includes several tree species, grasses such as Atraphaxis muschketovii and Stipa karatavica, and many herbs. There are many species of wild onion, among them Allium pskemense, a very rare, large onion found only in a small part of the Pskem Range of the Western Tien Shan. Primula minkwitziae only grows above 3 000 m in the northern Tien Shan, and Niedzwedzkia semiretchenskia is restricted to an area of only 7 ha in the Chu-Ili Mountains.

Among vertebrates, 143 species of mammals occur in the hotspot, including a rich suite of mountain ungulates. The Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica) is the most numerous and most widespread species, occurring in all parts of the area above the treeline. Very small populations of the Tadjik markhor (C. falconeri heptneri, CR) occur at lower altitudes in the Kugitang Mountains at the western end of the Gissar-Alai system, and in a few parts of the southwest Pamir in Tajikistan. Three endemic subspecies of argali (Ovis ammon, VU) are found here, while the blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), a typical Tibetan and Trans-Himalayan species, reaches the southeast corner of the hotspot. The foothills of the hotspot hold desert species such as goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa). Mammal endemism is generally low in this hotspot, with only six species found nowhere else, namely Menzbier’s marmot (Marmota menzbieri, VU), two susliks or ground squirrels (Spermophilus ralli and S. relictus), the Pamir shrew (Sorex bucharensis), the Ili pika (Ochotona iliensis, VU), and the Alai mole vole (Ellobius alaicus, EN). The last mentioned species is known only from the Alai Mountains, in southern Kyrgyzstan.

There are 493 bird species that can be considered to occur regularly in this hotspot but, incredibly, there are no endemics. Many species belong to genera typical of the high ranges of Asia, such as Phoenicurus, Prunella, and Carpodacus. Three species of snowcocks (large game birds of the genus Tetraogallus) occur: T. altaicus in the Dzhungarian Alatau, and T. himalayensis and T. thibetanus in the Pamir and Tien Shan. Coniferous forests on the northern side of the Tien Shan form the southern limit of the range of several boreal species in continental Asia, including the crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix), and northern hawk owl (Surnia ulula). Desert birds, including threatened species such as the great bustard (Otis tarda, VU) and houbara bustard (Chlamydotis undulata) occur in the low-altitude zones.

The hotspot represents a stronghold for birds of prey. Twenty-one species breed here and there are important breeding populations of several species, some of them globally threatened. These include the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), imperial eagle (A. heliaca, VU), steppe eagle (A. rapax), booted eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus), lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus), black vulture (Aegypius monachus), Eurasian griffon (Gyps fulvus), Himalayan griffon (G. himalayensis), peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), and saker falcon (F. cherrug). Several more species pass through the hotspot on migration. Besides birds of prey, the high lakes in the Pamir are the breeding grounds for the brown-headed gull (Larus brunnicephalus) and bar-headed goose (Anser indicus), while Lake Bayanbulak in the eastern Tien Shan holds a breeding colony of whooper swans (Cygnus cygnus).

Some 59 species of reptiles are known to occur in this hotspot, only one of which is endemic, a skink, Asymblepharus alaicus. Not surprisingly, reptile diversity is highest in the lower altitudinal range, in desert and semidesert areas. There are ten species of Eremias lizards and eight toad-headed agamas (Phrynocephalus spp.). Only nine species of amphibians have been recorded, reflecting the overall aridity, four of them being endemic. A salamander (Ranodon sibiricus) is found only in the Dzhungarian Alatau Range at the northern end of the Tien Shan and represents an endemic genus, while two recently described species, a toad (Bufo shaartuensis) and a frog (Rana terentievi), are known only from southern Tajikistan, but may also occur in adjacent parts of Afghanistan (Borkin 1999).

The hotspot’s high-gradient streams and oligotrophic lakes have a very limited fish fauna, but a significant degree of endemism at the species level. Endemism is centered in the Lake Issyk-Kul Basin of Kyrgyzstan, which lacks a natural outlet connecting it with any other body of water. The fish fauna of the hotspot consists of 27 species, with five endemics. The most notable hotspot endemic is the Kugitang blind cave fish (Troglocobitis starostini), which is restricted to a small part of the Kugitang Mountains at the southwestern end of the hotspot.

The alpine meadows are also rich in insect diversity, although full inventory data is lacking for many groups. An estimated 25% of Kyrgyzstan’s 10 000 invertebrates are endemic (Ministry of Environmental Protection 1998). The large and attractive butterflies of the family Papilionidae, which comprises swallowtails and apollos, are one of the best-known invertebrate groups. Twentysix species of apollo butterflies occur in the hotspot and eleven of them are endemic, some having very limited distributions in parts of individual ranges. There are also 87 endemic mollusks, including the Kokand freshwater clam (Colletopterum kokandicum), which is restricted to one lake in the Fergana Valley. In addition, Arkhangelskii’s spring snail (Valvatamnicola archangelskii) is known only from a few cold-water springs in the Alai Range;V. schahimardanica occurs in a single population in the Alai Range; and Zhadin’s spring snail (Sogdamnicola shadini) is found only at mid-altitudes in the Zeravshan Range.

Flagship Species

The Mountains of Central Asia play a key, connecting role in the distribution of many montane Asian species through their central location in the continent. Consequently, the hotspot shares many of its flagship species with the Himalaya Hotspot. Perhaps the best example of this is the snow leopard (Uncia uncia, EN), universally regarded as the most charismatic and symbolic animal in the Asian mountain fauna. Its reclusive, wary nature and mainly crepuscular and nocturnal habits mean that it is rarely observed in the wild, although its distinctive field signs can be discerned on paths, ridgelines, the base of cliffs, and the bottom of gorges, and are used to establish its presence in a particular area and to monitor its movements. The snow leopard is distributed throughout the Mountains of Central Asia, which once formed a stronghold for the species, although it has declined in numbers here as elsewhere. The snow leopard’s population has decreased since the break-up of the former Soviet Union. Its fur is valued in some quarters, making it a target for hunters, and the species is also killed on occasion by livestock owners, but the main cause is the depletion of its prey base through illegal hunting. Snow leopards prey on Siberian ibex, argali, roe deer, red deer, wild boar, smaller prey such as marmots, and snowcock. They usually inhabit the alpine and subalpine zones, and have been recorded at over 5 000 m in the Pamir, but will follow ibex and other prey down to lower altitudes at the forest edge. In some lower ranges it lives all year at 1 500–2 000 m and in spurs of the Dzhungarian Alatau it occurs at 600–1 800 m. The Mountains of Central Asia serve as a key link in the western part of the range of this species, allowing movement of individuals and genetic interchange between populations in the Hindu Kush, Karakoram, Kun Lun, Altai, and Tibet.

As noted earlier, this hotspot has a rich array of ungulate species, many of which serve as important flagships. Argalis are the largest of the Eurasian wild sheep, with a distribution confined to Central Asia, the Himalaya, and Tibet. Their enormous horns have long made them a prized trophy. Three subspecies are found in the Mountains of Central Asia, each one endemic to a particular range. The Karatau argali (Ovis ammon nigrimontana, CR) is confined to the Karatau, a relatively low desert range stretching northwest from the Tien Shan, and may now number no more than 200. The Tien Shan argali (O. a. karelini, VU) occurs along the Tien Shan in suitable habitat, while the Marco Polo sheep (O. a. polii, VU), whose magnificent curling horns have long made it a favored target of trophy hunters, occurs in the Pamir. It is also under great pressure for its meat, and has disappeared from around villages and areas easily accessible by road (Shackleton 1997).

A few of the smaller mammal species deserve mention as flagship species. Menzbier’s marmot is a distinctive, small species of marmot that is endemic to western Tien Shan, where it inhabits the alpine zone and higher parts of the subalpine zones, usually above 2 000 m. Its total range covers only about 1 600 km², the smallest distribution of any Old World marmot, and this is split into two isolated areas, each one occupied by different subspecies. The Ili pika is a small species of lagomorph restricted entirely to the Chinese Tien Shan, where it inhabits taluses at altitudes of 2 800 to 4 100 m. Finally, the corsac fox (Vulpes corsac) is a typical Central Asian species which occurs in lower steppe and semidesert areas. The corsac is considered a valuable fur-bearer species, and has been hunted for centuries, although hunting today is regulated by national legislation in those countries where it is regarded as a fur-bearer species (such as Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan).

Tulips (Tulipa spp.) are one of the most attractive and most valued groups of flowers in the Mountains of Central Asia. Over 16 endemic species grow in the steppe and meadow zones. The largest is Greig’s tulip (Tulipa greigii), sometimes known as the king of the tulips, a rare plant with a brilliant orange-red flower and that is only found in western Tien Shan, where it grows up to about 2 400 m. The late-flowering T. kaufmanniana is also restricted to western Tien Shan. Its beautiful white flowers have an almost open shape, sometimes suffused with orange or gold. Another lateflowering species is the delicate yellow T. dasystemonoides. Two more species from the western Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai are T. kolpakowskiana and T. ostrowskiana, which sometimes hybridize, producing swathes of red, yellow, and orange blooms across the hillsides. Tulipa zenaidae is endemic to the Kyrgyz Alatau Range in the Tien Shan, and T. regeli to the Chu-Ili Mountains. The beauty of these flowers has led directly to the decline of many species through collecting for horticulture and decoration.

Threats

The Mountains of Central Asia have long been exploited for grazing, food, timber, and fuel. The human population of the hotspot numbers around 20 million people, with many more living in the adjoining plains. Population density in the Fergana Valley is around 400–500 per km², but fewer than two people per km² live in the Pamir. A steady rise in the human population and domestic livestock, and the associated need for land and resources, have inexorably increased pressure on the environment, which has reached unsustainable levels in many places. This trend has become much more severe over the last 10–15 years as a result of political and economic changes in the countries of the former Soviet Union. The transition to a market economy, and withdrawal of government subsidies, have created an extremely difficult and unfavorable economic situation in which a large proportion of the population currently lives at subsistence level or below the official poverty line. This leads directly to intensified use of natural resources to meet peoples’ needs. Habitat destruction, overgrazing, and unregulated hunting of animals and collection of plants emerge as the three major and continuing threats.

Virtually all the land in the lowland desert belt and in many foothill areas has been converted to agricultural use, mainly for cultivation of cotton and other crops aided by irrigation. The mountain ranges fulfill a vital water-storage role through their glaciers and winter snow, which enables much of the cultivation on the plains below to take place. Furthermore, as coal and other fuel becomes unavailable and unaffordable, the cutting of trees and shrubs for fuel and building timber has been exacerbated. This, together with forest fires, has greatly reduced the area of these habitats, especially in the case of the steppe shrub communities and the unique and valuable walnut-fruit forests. As an example, between 1995 and 1998, more than 4 500 km² of forest in Kazakhstan were lost due to fires. The quality of remaining forests is affected by overgrazing and other factors that prevent or slow down natural regeneration, and many of them are dominated by mature trees. In Kyrgyzstan, the remnant walnut forests are threatened by wind-borne pathogens. Expansion of settlements, construction of roads and other infrastructure, recreational facilities, mining (deposits of oil, coal, iron, copper, lead, zinc, and phosphates are all exploited), and other economic activities also destroy and fragment natural habitats. Much of the hotspot remained accessible only by foot or on horseback until fairly recently, but roads have opened up wide tracts of the mountains, and facilitated exploitation and increasing disturbance.

Numbers of domestic livestock throughout the region have increased sharply, and overgrazing affects many areas, especially the foothills and lower slopes, but also the alpine and subalpine meadows. Severe degradation is localized around camps and settlements, but a much wider area is affected in less visible ways. Overgrazing steadily reduces the fresh grass yield and causes changes in species composition, with increasing predominance of less palatable species. This reduces the productivity of alpine meadows and the number of wild herbivores they can support, and increases the risk of soil erosion. Pastures throughout the hotspot have been degraded. In one part of eastern Tien Shan, livestock numbers doubled in the last 50 years, and serious overgrazing and pastureland degradation began as early as the 1970s (Zhang et al. 2002).

Poaching, especially of larger mammals and birds, has increased sharply since the break-up of the former Soviet Union. Mountain ungulates have been increasingly seen as a source of food, and snow leopard numbers in Kyrgyzstan are estimated to have fallen by 75% during the 1990s as a result of heavy hunting pressure on them and their prey (Koshkarev and Vyrypaev 2000). Other species, too, are killed or captured for profit; for example, falcons are exported to the Middle East, where they fetch a high price when sold to falconers. Unregulated collection of plants poses a direct threat to several species and impoverishes the diversity of meadows. Villagers pick flowers to sell by mountain roadsides, beginning with crocuses and Juno species from late February on, then moving on to tulips and other groups through spring and summer. Crocuses and tulips have disappeared or become very rare in several areas and some endemic species are threatened with extinction as a result. Collection of plants for medicinal use (of which there are around 200 species) and horticulture are similarly uncontrolled and operate on a semi-commercial scale.

A number of other factors also affect the region. Civil conflict in Tajikistan during the 1990s and war in Afghanistan posed a direct threat to wildlife, while a more recent phenomenon affecting large animals is the siting of minefields along some international borders, with anecdotal reports indicating that snow leopards and other species have been killed as a result. Damming, reservoir construction, and irrigation have disrupted water supplies and drainage systems. Many wetlands have been drained to create cultivable land, and some watercourses are polluted by mining residues. Overfishing and the introduction, or accidental release, of alien species have further damaged freshwater ecosystems. Populations of endemic fish in Lake Issyk-Kul have declined as a result of overfishing and predation by introduced species.

The recreational load on montane ecosystems is growing as increasing numbers of local and overseas tourists visit the region and impact on the environment through their various activities, especially in the Pamir-Alai and Tien Shan. Accommodation facilities, campsites, access roads, and infrastructure for skiing and other activities further encroach on habitats and add to the disturbance. The region has also become more accessible to overseas hunters. Many mountain ungulate species are shot for trophies, and this activity has risen during the last 15 years. In some cases, hunting permits have been granted in direct contradiction to existing protection laws.

In light of the above, natural vegetation communities in most parts of the hotspot are found only within protected areas, and even in some of these they are under increasing threat. Almost 30% of the land in the Mountains of Central Asia has been completely transformed as a result of human activities (Tishkov 2002). In Kyrgyzstan, many ecosystems have been degraded and over half of the forest cover has been lost in the last 50 years (Ministry of Environmental Protection 1998), while 90% of forests in Tajikistan have disappeared during the last 100 years (USAID 2001d). Taking together the analyses in national biodiversity strategy, as well as action plans and ongoing work on the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (GEF/UNDP 1998; Ministry of Environmental Protection 1998; Regional Ecological Assessment Centre of Central Asia 2003; USAID 2001a, b, c, d), it is estimated that no more than 20% of the original vegetation of the hotspot remains in an intact state.

Finally, a more insidious threat, and one whose consequences may be of particular relevance in both this and the Himalaya hotspots, is the long-term effect of global warming, which has the potential to cause radical changes to the environment and the biota currently present. Glaciers in the area are estimated to have shrunk by nearly 20% during the last 30–35 years (Regional Ecological Assessment Centre of Central Asia 2003). In the longer term, the destabilizing effects of the melting of frozen upper slopes are unknown. Many montane taxa are predicted to decline and some will disappear from the area altogether.

Conservation

Overall, protected area coverage in this hotspot is poor. According to the World Database on Protected Areas, about 6.9% of the total area has some form of official protection in nature reserves and other protected areas, although many reserves are small and isolated. In addition, some protected areas that have been gazetted are not fully functioning entities and conservation effectiveness in many is tenuous. In all the countries of the former Soviet Union, there has been a breakdown in former protection regimes such as the dramatic reduction in funding staff salaries, patrolling, and other management activities. This has an effect at all levels, from strategic planning, day-to-day management, and combating illegal activities to research.

The size of protected areas varies from 11 ha in the Chinese Walnut Nature Reserve to Pamir National Park in Tajikistan and the Taxkorgan Nature Reserve in China, in the southeast of the hotspot, both of which cover 15 000 km². Other large protected areas include Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve (6 298 km²), in Kyrgyzstan; and Mount Tomur Nature Reserve (1 000 km²) and Boghdad Mountain Biosphere Reserve (1 000 km²), both in the Chinese sector of the Tien Shan. Other notable reserves in the countries of the former Soviet Union include Aksu-Dzhebagly (750 km²) in western Tien Shan, Sary-Chelek (238 km²) in Kyrgyzstan, and Kugitang Strict Nature Reserve in Turkmenistan. International borders often follow mountain ridges, and the need for transboundary reserves is increasingly being recognized within the region.

The legislative framework to protect wildlife in the region is not comprehensive and requires strengthening. More importantly, enforcement of existing laws is frequently inadequate or even non-existent in some cases. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans have been compiled for Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Kyrgyzstan, and all the countries covered by the Mountains of Central Asia Hotspot have compiled national Red Data Books, with the exception of Afghanistan. Regional cooperation between the countries of the former Soviet Union has increased and encompasses a Central Asian Mountain Information Network and a Regional Red List program, funded by a European Union program, which aims to coordinate assessments and set up a database of threatened species.

Many international donors are involved in the region. The Global Environment Facility’s Western Tien Shan Project was established to support conservation of biodiversity in three counties of western Tien Shan. Other international NGOs currently active in the region include WWF (Central Asia program), Fauna and Flora International (working on community development and environment programs, capacity building and assistance with the development of national biodiversity strategy and action plans). The International Snow Leopard Trust and NABU, a German nature conservation organization, are working on snow leopard conservation in Kyrgyzstan. NABU is also involved in project work around Lake Issyk-Kul and a project in Nurata Nature Reserve in Uzbekistan. A coordinated regional snow leopard program has been initiated and “Asia-Irbis,” a regional working group on conservation of the snow leopard in the region, has been established. The governments of Switzerland and Kyrgyzstan have instituted a forestry project to manage remnant walnut forests in Kyrgyzstan, and the Central Asia Mountain Programme (CAMP) has been set up by University of Berne with financing from the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) to promote sustainable use of pastures in Central Asia. A Regional Ecological Centre for Central Asia has been established, and has begun an assessment of the ecosystems of Central Asia and the extent of human influence on them at local, national, and regional levels.

Initiatives have also been undertaken to address wider issues affecting the environment. A Global Mountain Summit, held in Kyrgyzstan during 2002, the International Year of the Mountains, explored united pproaches for mountain development. The Asian Development Bank and the Swiss government sponsored a Regional Strategy for Sustainable Development of the Mountain Regions of Central Asia. Awareness and education programs aimed at the inhabitants of mountain villages and schools, as well as publicity in the mass media have been initiated. And, finally, ecotourism and trekking initiatives have been launched, which can, if properly planned, contribute to the local economy and gain support for conservation. Well-managed trophy hunting programs, while controversial, have the potential to do the same.

The Mountains of Central Asia contain unique ecosystems and great landscape and biotic diversity. They are the traditional home of several different ethnic groups, and provide an economic resource and a vital source of water to the plains below. Wide areas have been degraded to a greater or lesser extent, and pressure on all ecosystems is heavy and rising. The major challenge for the future is to devise and implement measures to reduce human land use to sustainable levels and to conserve the rich biological diversity. This will call for imaginative solutions and a partnership between local communities, conservationists, and governments, as well as considerable financial resources.

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