Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany

Biodiversity
Flagship Species
Threats
Conservation

The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region lies along the east coast of southern Africa below the Great Escarpment. It extends from the extreme southern parts of Mozambique (Limpopo River) and Mpumalanga (Olifants River) in the north, through Swaziland and KwaZulu-Natal, to the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa in the south. The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region is very diverse and complex floristically, climatologically, and geologically. There are at least three clear foci of high endemism and high diversity in the area, the names of which have been amalgamated as the name of this hotspot. These foci are Maputaland (= Tongaland) in the north, Pondoland further south, and Albany in the southwest. The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region is not only a center of endemism, but also a marked center of diversity across the taxonomic spectrum.

The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot is about 274 316 km² in size, and its boundaries correspond broadly to White's (1983) delimitation of the Tongaland-Pondoland Regional Mosaic. However, as defined here, it is a bit larger than this region as it extends further inland to include areas of temperate grassland and forest lying below 1 800 m along the Great Escarpment in KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape, and below 1 200 m further north in Swaziland, Mpumalanga, and Limpopo (see Davis et al. 1994; Van Wyk and Smith 2001). Following Van Wyk and Smith (2001), it also extends further west in the south to include the Albany center of plant endemism. The Maputaland area has strong floristic and faunistic connections with the Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa Hotspot to the north, whereas the Pondoland region shows some floristic links with the Cape Floristic Region further south.

The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot borders several important areas of plant diversity and endemism, including the Cape Floristic Region Hotspot, and the Barberton, Wolkberg, and Drakensberg Alpine Centers of Plant Endemism (Van Wyk and Smith 2001), which are considered as outliers of the broader Eastern Afromontane Hotspot.

The topography of the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region is very diverse, ranging from ancient and young sand dunes and low-lying plains in the north to a series of rugged terraces deeply incised by river valleys in the central and southern parts. Several mountain ranges, including the Sneeuberg (highest peak in the region: Kompasberg in Sneeuberg, 2 502 m), Winterberg (2 369 m), Amatola Mountains (1 937 m), Ngeli Range (2 268 m), Lebombo Mountains (699 m), and Ngoye Range (486 m), also occur within the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region, while the Great Escarpment borders it to the west. The break-up of Gondwana, and subsequent cycles of uplift and erosion shaped the landscape of the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region. These processes formed the Great Escarpment, which receded from the coast after the break-up event and the establishment of an effective drainage system. Today, the Great Escarpment separates the elevated interior plateau of southern Africa from the coastal lowlands. Regional geology consists of basement granites, gneisses and schists, various sedimentary deposits, lavas (basalt and dolerite intrusions), and marine sediments of various ages. The climate of the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region ranges from subtropical-tropical in the low-lying, northern coastal areas to more temperate with frost in winter on higher ground away from the coast.

Six of South Africa's eight biomes enter into the hotspot, and 27 of the 68 vegetation types that occur within South Africa, Lesotho, and Swaziland, according to Low and Rebelo (1998), as well as one that they do not recognize, are represented within the region. One type of forest (namely Licuáti forest, previously called sand forest), three types of thicket, six types of bushveld, and five types of grassland, including the coastal plateau sourveld grasslands of Pondoland, the short mistbelt grasslands, and the woody grasslands of Maputaland, are endemic to the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot.

The forests of the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region, despite their naturally fragmented distribution, are of special interest. Forest vegetation covers less than 30 000 km² in South Africa (of which approximately 80% falls within the hotspot); these warm temperate forests have by far the highest tree richness of any of the world's other temperate forests, with some 598 tree species occurring (Silander 2001). This richness in tree species is exceeded only in the evergreen forests of East Asia, where 876 species grow in a much larger area. South African forests are also between three and seven times richer in tree species than other forested areas of the Southern Hemisphere, even though the other Southern Hemispheric forests cover a much larger area (Silander 2001).

The thicket biome of southern Africa, the largest part of which occurs within the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region, is thought to be the most species-rich formation of woody plants within South Africa. It has been suggested that thickets are extremely ancient and include many elements basal to the Cape and Succulent Karoo flora (Vlok et al. 2003). In addition to forest and thicket, grassland is also of particular importance in this hotspot, especially as it is the most threatened and least protected of all the biome types in southern Africa.

This hotspot also has a remarkable succulent flora that is mainly concentrated in the Albany region. The succulent riches of southern Africa are well known (especially that of the Succulent Karoo Hotspot), with over 46% (4 674 taxa in 58 families) of the world's succulents growing naturally in southern Africa (Smith et al. 1997). This is perhaps not surprising, as large parts of the southern African landscape are prone to regular droughts, to which numerous plant species have adapted by developing succulent leaves, stems, and roots. However, whereas leaf succulents predominate in the western, mainly winter-rainfall parts of southern Africa, the succulents of the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region are predominantly stem succulents.

The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region is not exceptionally diverse as a region of cultural diversity when compared with other parts of southern and central Africa. However, the region is very densely populated (over 20 million people), with extensive informal township and urban development, especially along the coastline. In some parts the human population reaches densities of up to 1 900 people per km² (Durban and surroundings). Other parts are less densely populated; the Pietermaritzburg and Port Elizabeth areas, for example, have population densities of around 500 people per km², while Umtata and East London population densities are up to 100 people per km². Most of the region is subjected to high population densities, with only a third of the land surface area having population densities of below 50 people per km².

Nevertheless, the hotspot remains a significant pluricultural, multilingual, and multi-ethnic region. Its oldest known inhabitants were various tribes of Bushmen (Saan) and Khoekhoe. Sadly, these cultures are now essentially gone from the region, although limited assimilation of the original Khoesaan languages is still reflected by the presence of so-called click sounds in widely spoken Nguni languages. Modern-day cultural groups centered in the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region include the Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi, Ronga, and Shangaan. Other cultures, mainly centered in and around urban areas, include the English and Afrikaners (speakers of Afrikaans —the only Germanic language to have developed outside Europe), as well as Indians. As a former Portuguese colony, Portuguese is one of the official languages in Mozambique and is widely spoken and understood in the Mozambican part of the hotspot.

Biodiversity

Based on species numbers, the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region is the second richest floristic region in Africa, after the Cape Floristic Region. An estimated 8 100 species from 243 families occur within the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region, and at least 1 900 (23%) species are endemic to the region. Plant families rich in endemics are (approximate number of species endemic to the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region in parentheses): Asteraceae (266), Apocynaceae (203; including Asclepiadaceae and Periplocaceae), Fabaceae (200), Asphodelaceae (155), Iridaceae (110), Euphorbiaceae (96), Scrophulariaceae (81), Lamiaceae (77), and Mesembryanthemaceae (76). One endemic family occurs within the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot, the monotypic Rhynchocalycaceae. In all, there are 1 524 vascular plant genera in the hotspot, of which 39 are endemic, including: Acharia (Achariaceae), Bergeranthus (Mesembryanthemaceae), Dahlgrenodendron (Lauraceae), Dermatobotrys (Scrophulariaceae), Emicocarpus (Asclepiadaceae), Helichrysopsis (Asteraceae), Heywoodia (Euphorbiaceae), Pseudosalacia (Celastraceae), Rhynchocalyx (Rhynchocalycaceae), Stangeria (Stangeriaceae), and Umtiza (Caesalpiniaceae).

Vertebrate diversity and endemism are low relative to most other hotspots. Birds are the most diverse group of vertebrates in the hotspot, with 541 regularly occurring species. The hotspot forms part of the Southeast African Coast Endemic Bird Area recognized by Bird-Life International (Stattersfield et al. 1998), with four restricted-range species: Rudd's apalis (Apalis ruddi), pink-throated twinspot (Hypargos margaritatus), Neergaard's sunbird (Cinnyris neergaardi), and lemon-breasted canary (Serinus citrinipectus).

The reptiles are the second most diverse vertebrate group in the hotspot. Of the 205 species occurring, 36 are endemic. At least seven species of dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion spp.) occur in the hotspot: the Transkei dwarf chameleon (B. caffrum), the Kentani dwarf chameleon (B. kentanicum), the black-headed dwarf chameleon (B. melanocephalum), the Zululand dwarf chameleon (B. nemorale), Setaro's dwarf chameleon (B. setaroi), the Natal Midlands dwarf chameleon (B. thamnobates), and the southern dwarf chameleon (B. ventrale). All have very restricted distributions within the region. There is one endemic genus (Macrelaps), represented by a single species, the Natal black snake (M. microlepidotus).

There are a total of 193 species of mammals, and at least five species are endemic, including two species of golden mole, Marley's golden mole (Amblysomus marleyi) and the giant golden mole (Chrysospalax trevelyani, EN), and the four-toed elephant shrew (Petrodromus tetradactylus).

The frogs of the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany hotspot number 80 species, of which 12 are endemic. Two genera are endemic, both represented by single species: Boneberg's frog (Natalobatrachus bonebergi, EN) and Rattray's or hogsback frog (Anhydrophryne rattrayi, EN).

Of the 73 indigenous species of freshwater fishes occurring within the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region, 20 are endemic, including four species of barb (Barbus spp.) (Skelton 2001). The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot also harbors an exceptionally rich and diverse invertebrate fauna. Charismatic insect groups such as butterflies and moths are well represented in the hotspot, with several rare and localized species. Among the more spectacular butterflies are Charaxes pondoensis, a species confined to a small area of coastal forest in the vicinity of Port St. Johns. The Lycaenidae is the largest family of butterflies in southern Africa, and several rare species are endemic to the hotspot. The pale yellow Bashee River buff (Deloneura immaculata) is known from only three specimens collected from Fort Bowker on the Bashee River in 1863. The species has not been recorded since, despite an extensive search by numerous collectors over the years, and is considered Extinct.

The phylum Onychophora comprises a fascinating group of ancient, caterpillar-like animals whose fossil record shows that they have not changed substantially in 400 million years. They are the most primitive group of animals to walk with the body raised upon legs (Hamer et al. 1997). There are two genera endemic to the larger southern African region, Opisthopatus and Peripatopsis. Of the nine described species of Onychophora in South Africa, the genus Opisthopatus is largely confined to the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot; O. roseus (CR), one of two species in the genus, is extremely rare and only known from Ngeli Forest near Kokstad (Hamer et al. 1997). Peripatopsis is represented in this region by the endemic P. moseley.

Finally, the family Microchaetidae (Oligochaeta) contains four genera and over 100 described species of truly amazing earthworms. The family is endemic to southern Africa, with the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot a major center of diversity for the group. Moreover, the monotypic genus Michalakus is endemic to the region, as are perhaps the majority of species in the genus Tritogenia (Plisko 1998). Many microchaetids in the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region are gigantic and inhabit moist, undisturbed, primary grassland or forest. Perhaps the most remarkable is Microchaetus vernoni, with adults known to reach a length of 2.6 m and a diameter of about 10 mm. It is only known from grassland in Vernon Crookes Nature Reserve, southern KwaZulu-Natal, a relatively small (2 189 ha) conservation area to which another two species, M. zaloumisi and M. ambitus, are endemic.

Flagship Species

The Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot is a source of numerous plants that have been developed successfully as horticultural subjects across the globe, including Tecomaria capensis, Plumbago auriculata, Crassula ovata, Carrissa macrocarpa, and many of the flagship species discussed here. One such flagship, the bitter aloe (Aloe ferox), is one of the best known and most conspicuous floristic elements in the southern parts of the hotspot. This medium to large, single-stemmed aloe is arguably the most important medicinal plant in South Africa. The yellowish brown leaf exudate has been used for several hundred years as the primary ingredient of a purgative drug known commercially as Cape Aloes.

The bird-of-paradise flower (Strelitzia reginae) is a hotspot endemic that grows up to 2 m high in its natural habitat in the Eastern Cape coastal bush. Today, it is a popular horticultural subject in many parts of the world and has even been adopted as the civic emblem of Los Angeles. This species hybridizes readily with the sword-leaved crane flower (S. juncea), another hotspot endemic. A tree member of the genus, Natal wild banana (S. nicolai), is also endemic and distributed along nearly the whole of the eastern seaboard of the region.

Commonly known as Christmas bells, Sandersonia aurantiaca is a monotypic genus endemic to this hotspot, which has beautiful orange-yellow flowers and lily-like growth. In past times, this flower was so plentiful in the region that it was common to see Zulu women walking with huge bunches that they collected in the field, selling them from door-to-door as cut flowers. Recently, however, it seems that this species is getting increasingly rare.

About 40 species of red-hot poker (Kniphofia spp.) occur within the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot. Of these 40 species, at least half are endemic. The chosen flagship species, Kniphofia rooperi, is a large and sturdy plant that flowers about mid-September. Unlike the typical expectation of red-hot pokers having bright red flowers, this species' flowers are orange-yellow in color. Already many cultivars of Kniphofia have been produced by horticulturists, including the use in some cases of K. rooperi as one of the parents.

An important avian flagship is the southern race of Cape parrot (Poicephalus robustus robustus), which can be distinguished from the northern race by its brownish head. It is dependent on the yellowwoods (Podocarpus spp.) for both nesting sites and food, although illegal harvesting of yellowwood timber for the furniture market severely threatens the existence of this subspecies. Another striking flagship is Woodward's barbet (Stactolaema olivacea woodwardi) which, in southern Africa, is restricted to the Ngoye Forest between Eshowe and Empangeni in KwaZulu-Natal. The species also occurs on the Rondo Plateau in Tanzania; however, the precise taxonomic status of these disjunct populations is not clear. The pink-throated twinspot and Neergaard's sunbird are both endemics of the northern parts of the hotspot. The pink-throated twinspot is mostly confined to low-lying coastal areas, but in Zululand is also found at the top of the Lebombo Mountains, inhabiting the edge of the forested slopes. Neergaard's sunbird is confined to the coastal plains north of Lake St. Lucia. Other bird flagship species include Gurney's sugarbird (Promerops gurneyi), the spectacular Knysna turaco or Knysna lourie (Tauraco corythaix), and the southern subspecies of Delegorgue's pigeon (Columba delegorguei delegorguei).

Reptilian flagship species include the seven species of the dwarf chameleons (genus Bradypodion) and three endemics: the Natal hinged tortoise (Kinixys natalensis), the Albany adder (Bitis albanica), and Tasman's girdled lizard (Cordylus tasmani). The Natal hinged tortoise occurs throughout the Lebombo Mountain range; the Albany adder is a very rare snake confined entirely to the Algoa Bay area of the Eastern Cape; and the Tasman's girdled lizard is endemic to the Algoa Bay area, where it lives under the “apron” of dead leaves on tall aloes, or on dead aloe stems lying on rocky slopes.

One of the most notable mammal flagships, and arguably among the most important for the hotspot, is the southern subspecies of the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum). This species was once common and widely distributed throughout southern and East Africa. The reduction in its range in recent times is largely due to hunting for its prized horn. The southern race narrowly survived extinction in the KwaZulu-Natal's Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park, which acted as a refuge during the times when the southern white rhino was at its most vulnerable, being reduced to a few dozen in number. In one of the greatest conservation success stories in African conservation, the southern white rhino has since increased in number to more than 12 000, with many having been relocated to other areas.

Two dainty antelope species also serve as important flagships. The blue duiker (Philantomba monticola) has a disjunct distribution in southern Africa, the southern population being confined to the hotspot. The southern form of the blue duiker favors forest, thicket, and dense coastal bush, and appears to be unaffected by the availability of drinking water. Blue duikers are severely threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation of populations, and are heavily poached with dogs and by snaring. The southern race of the suni (Neotragus moschatus zuluensis) is endemic to the hotspot. It is a secretive, little antelope that is very habitatspecific, relying on forest with high stem density and low ground cover. The Zululand suni's distribution is currently quite restricted due to the destruction of its habitat. It is both sensitive to, and dependent on, the modification of its habitat by factors such as the feeding behavior of cattle, nyalas, and elephants, harvesting activities by humans, and the impact of fire on forest margins and understory. Three small mammals deserve mention as flagships, namely the red bush squirrel (Paraxerus palliatus, VU), and the two golden mole species.

Frog flagships of the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region include the aforementioned Boneberg's frog and Rattray's frog. The former is restricted to forests along the coasts where recent housing developments and sugarcane plantations have destroyed much of its habitat. The latter is known from the Amatola and Katberg Mountains in the Eastern Cape Province, where it occurs along streams in thick vegetation; commercial timber plantations are the main threat to this frog's continued existence. Other notable species include the golden spiny reed frog (Afrixalus aureus), Pickersgill's reed frog (Hyperolius pickersgilli, EN), and the soprano or whistling rain frog (Breviceps sopranus), a recently described species so called because it utters a long, high-pitched whistle. The golden spiny reed frog, with its gold-colored back, is endemic to the hotspot (where it occurs in low-altitude grasslands), while Pickersgill's reed frog is also endemic and is found in the coastal lowlands of KwaZulu-Natal.

Among the flagship freshwater fishes are the Sibayi goby (Silhouettea sibayi), which occurs in a variety of freshwater and brackish habitats, and the border barb (Barbus trevelyani, CR), which is restricted to the Keiskamma and Buffalo river systems in the Eastern Cape, and inhabits pools and riffles of clear rocky streams, where it feeds on insects, seeds, and algae. The Eastern Cape rocky (Sandelia bainsii, EN) is restricted to the Buffalo, Keiskamma, Great Fish, and Kowie river systems in the Eastern Cape; interestingly, the only other species in the genus is endemic to streams in the Cape Floristic Region.

The hotspot also has a very rich and varied scarab or dung beetle (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) fauna. One rare species, the flightless dung beetle (Circellium bacchus), has a very restricted present-day distribution and has captured the imagination of visitors to the Addo Elephant Park in the Eastern Cape. The only member of its genus, it is named after the god of wine, probably because of its somewhat erratic, stumbling behavior! This must be one of the few insect species in the world for which special road signs have been erected, alerting motorists not to drive the wheels of their vehicles over elephant and buffalo dung pads in roads.

Threats

Having one of the highest human densities in sub-Saharan Africa (Esterhuysen 1998a, b), the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot is threatened by a number of human activities. Land cover information derived from satellite data indicates that permanent and complete transformation of habitat has affected 19% of the region. This has been caused mainly by cultivation (12.7%), plantation forestry (3.4%), and urbanization (1.7%). A further 30% of the natural vegetation has been severely damaged and permanently degraded so that it now exists only in a secondary state, while about 27% is in a poor, in-between, non-pristine state. This degradation has mainly been caused by harvesting of indigenous woodlands, soil erosion, overgrazing and shifting cultivation, and invasive species. A maximum of 24.5% of the hotspot can be considered close to the pristine state.

Degradation of the thicket and grassland biomes has been particularly severe. By 1981, more than 50% of the thicket biome in South Africa was seriously overgrazed and 9% has been permanently transformed (Le Roux 2002). Since then, these figures have probably increased significantly, all the more worrying since only 5% of the thicket biome is formally protected in South Africa. Between 60% and 80% of the grasslands of South Africa are irreversibly transformed, while only 2% are formally conserved (Le Roux 2002). Many of these are (were) primary grasslands that took hundreds of thousands of years to develop their present diversity, and which do not recover their original floristic composition after destruction. The same holds true for those parts of the grassland biome that enter into the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany region. For example, the endemic grassland type “Pondoland coastal plateau sourveld” is the smallest veld type recognized by Acocks (1953), and is seriously threatened by overgrazing, sugarcane production, and commercial timber plantations.

Cultivation practices that threaten and degrade habitats in the hotspot include both large-scale commercial agriculture and subsistence farming. Subsistence farming occurs mainly in communal areas, and consists mostly of shifting cultivation which, while not expanding in the region at the moment, does affect entire landscapes covering hundreds of square kilometers. In many of these areas it is impossible to find even a small portion of the landscape that has not been affected by cultivation. When such areas do exist, they are often under severe grazing pressure from domestic livestock. The subtropical areas of this region are also particularly well-suited to sugarcane production, and South Africa's large sugar industry is based entirely within this hotspot. Consequently, commercial sugarcane farming has completely transformed large tracts of land, especially in the coastal regions north and south of Durban. Cultivation in South Africa increased by 122% in area between 1987 and 1994 (Le Roux 2002) and, as human population numbers increase and the pressure to produce food continues, this trend is likely to continue into the future, resulting in more habitat loss.

Industrial timber production is the second largest cause of habitat loss in the region. Plantations form very large continuous stands of alien trees along escarpment slopes, coastal plains, and midland mist belts, and are a particularly serious threat to grassland habitats. Several hundred thousand hectares of species-rich primary grassland in the hotspot have already been destroyed by commercial afforestation, and plans are under way to establish more alien tree monocultures, especially in parts of the Eastern Cape. The effects of these commercial tree plantations on biodiversity and water runoff have been devastating. Besides transforming habitats, the alien trees alter the natural hydrological regime by using much more groundwater than the indigenous vegetation and affect the chemical and physical status of soils. Pine trees (Pinus spp.), eucalypts (Eucalyptus spp.), and Australian wattles in the drier northern areas (Acacia spp.) are the three groups of plantation trees that have the largest negative impact on the grasslands of the region.

Urbanization is the third largest threat to natural habitats and vegetation in the region. There are three major urban centers in the region, namely Maputo in southern Mozambique, and Durban and Port Elizabeth in South Africa. The growth of cities appears to be an unstoppable phenomenon of the modern era, which almost always leads to the formation of unplanned sprawling slums on the outskirts of the cities. The Durban-Pietermaritzburg area in KwaZulu-Natal is one of the three largest urban centers in South Africa, and has a population of around three million people. Recently, an industrial development zone was designated at Coega, adjacent to Port Elizabeth and, with strong political backing, this is likely to promote urban and industrial spread.

Almost half of the region is communally owned and supports livestock numbers far in excess of what is considered ecologically sustainable. These high livestock numbers have caused extensive degradation of the natural rangelands. Vegetation that has not (yet) been permanently degraded is seriously threatened by overgrazing. In the combined areas of communal and commercially owned rangelands, overgrazing has degraded 25% of the total area covered by the hotspot to the point that the vegetation is in a very poor condition, with altered species composition and reduced vegetation cover. Extensive invasion by alien plant species and localized mining activities (specifically titanium extraction from coastal sands) are two other threats to natural vegetation in the region.

In southern Mozambique, specifically, one of the major threats is the large-scale conversion of trees into charcoal to supply the growing demand for firewood for the larger Maputo Metropolis. Important timber species such as chamfuta (Afzelia quanzensis) are also being harvested extensively from natural vegetation, in many cases illegally.

Conservation

An analysis of the World Database on Protected Areas reveals that 8.4% of the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot is conserved in various forms of protected areas. This figure drops only slightly when one considers only protected areas classified in IUCN categories I to IV (7.4%). The South African National Parks, a statutory body within the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, manages several national parks within the area, including the Greater Addo Park (24 000 ha) and the Mountain Zebra National Park (6 536 ha); however, management of most protected areas in KwaZulu-Natal falls under the jurisdiction of Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife. In Mozambique, the management of conservation areas falls under the Direcção Nacional de Florestas e Fauna Bravia (DNFFB) of the Ministério da Agricultura e Pescas. The Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park (256 644 ha) was declared a World Heritage Site under the World Heritage Convention of UNESCO, and efforts are under way to establish a transfrontier conservation area that would link nature reserves in Swaziland, southern Mozambique, and northeastern KwaZulu-Natal. Numerous other conservation areas —managed by provincial or local governments or private individuals— of varying sizes occur within the hotspot.

Current conservation initiatives include the establishment of the Baviaanskloof Megareserve, the expansion of the Greater Addo Park and the Mountain Zebra Reserve, the wild coast initiative, and the Subtropical Thicket Ecosystem Planning (STEP) project. The Licuáti Forest Reserve (established in 1943 with the purpose of protecting woody plant species, particularly chamfuta) and the Maputo Elephant Reserve are the primary conservation areas in southern Mozambique. However, law enforcement in these areas is very poor, and they are not very well protected (Izidine 2003).

The existing protected area system does not represent the biodiversity of the hotspot, in terms of both species and the processes required to sustain them. This is especially true of the Pondoland area, where only a few small conservation areas are present. Grasslands, woody grasslands, and coastal forests and thickets are just some of the habitats that are inadequately protected. A major problem is that the conservation areas of the hotspot have mostly been established with the protection of big game in mind, and a number of floristically interesting and often unique areas, for example the Noorsveld in the southern parts, therefore still go unprotected.

One of the more important private initiatives in the region is the conservancy program. The conservancy concept originated in KwaZulu-Natal in 1978, and involves the establishment of committees of landowners who pledge to protect the natural environment, or certain aspects thereof (they may choose, for example, to focus on a specific species to look out for and protect) on the land they own. There are currently about 218 conservancies in KwaZulu-Natal alone, covering about 1.5 million ha, including 167 rural, 38 urban and suburban, 4 township, 4 industrial, and 5 marine conservancies. Members of the conservancy program (currently numbering 2 761 members of the public and 372 game rangers) attend lectures and participate in various conservation programs.

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