Irano-Anatolian

Biodiversity
Flagship Species
Threats
Conservation

The Irano-Anatolian Hotspot covers a topographically complex and extensive system of mountains and closed basins separating the natural communities and the indigenous cultures of the Mediterranean Basin and the dry plateaus of Western Asia. For many centuries, the historical Silk Road crossing from east to west through this area was the major route for trade and cultural exchange between the two regions, and the area is here recognized as a new hotspot because of its high endemism and rich flora and fauna.

The hotspot originally covered an area of 899 773 km², including major parts of central and eastern Turkey, Georgia (marginally), the Nahçevan Province of Azerbaijan, Armenia, northeastern Iraq, northern and western Iran, as well as the Northern Kopet Dagh Range in Turkmenistan. The region includes massive ranges of dry mountains stretching west to east in the northern part (East Anatolian Mountains, Southern Elburz Mountains, and the Kopet Dagh) and north to south in the southern part (Zagros Mountains). These highlands extend between the three major remnants of the ancient Tethys Sea: the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, and the Caspian.

In terms of its geological make-up, the hotspot has a mixture of ancient massifs, folded sedimentary rocks, and recent igneous rocks. Limestone blocks mostly from the Paleozoic Era predominate in its southern part. Between the mountain ranges, there are broken plateaus covered by alluvial soils. Several parts of the hotspot are seismically active. Here, elevations generally range from 1 000 m to 4 000 m, with some areas as low as 300 m, such as the foothills of the Kopet Dagh and western Zagros Mountains. A number of peaks exceed 5 000 m, including the dormant volcanoes of Mt. Ararat in Turkey (5 165 m) and Mt. Damavand in Iran (5 671 m). The plateaus of Anatolia, Armenia, and western Iran range between 800 and 2 000 m, and are characterized by primary plain steppes, which are climax steppes that have never been covered by any forest or shrubland (because these areas are too dry and the soils poor); the mountain areas around the plateaus are covered by dry forests or secondary steppes. Three major closed basins (Konya Closed Basin, the Van Basin and the Lake Urumiyeh Basin) lie to the north of the hotspot, including various small remnant lakes of the Tethys surrounded by primary plain steppes.

The geological history of this hotspot has triggered the evolution of its biodiversity. The mountains served both as a refuge and a corridor between the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia at the time of movements of the ancient Tethys Sea and its remnants. Roughly 10 million years ago, the Turkish and Arabian plates moving northwards crashed into Asia to create the mountains and plateaus of the Irano-Anatolian region. This cut the Tethys Sea off from the Indian Ocean, thereby creating the Mediterranean Sea. The remnants of the Tethys in the Irano-Anatolian plateaus dried up and were refilled several times. These movements have made the hotspot a site of constant dispersal and local speciation, and many endemic species, especially local plant species, originated at this time (Ekim et al. 2000). The hotspot's centers for endemism of aquatic species, the Tuz Lake Basin, Van Lake, Urumiyeh Lake, and many other small lakes in Turkey and Iran, are particularly important in representing the biodiversity of the Tethys.

During long periods of glaciation, this region was invaded by refugee species from northern Europe and Asia. Then, periods of aridity disrupted the ranges of many species and effectively isolated the Euro-Siberian forest and meadow species, such that they became restricted to the riparian forests along the mountain valleys or in alpine lakes of the hotspot.

The climate is continental, with hot summers and cold winters. Most of the region has severely cold winters, with extremes dropping to –40°C. Summers are dry, with a mean of 20°–30°C, reaching up to 48°C. Annual rainfall varies from 100 mm to over 1 000 mm, most of it falling in winter and spring. Winter rainfall occurs mainly in the form of snow, which can remain until June-July at higher altitudes. Rainfall is remarkably low in central Turkey and in the southeastern Zagros Mountains, ranging between 100 and 400 mm per year.

The Irano-Anatolian Hotspot is confined to the western part of the Irano-Turanian Floristic Region that also extends eastwards to include the arid lands bordering the Caspian Sea, the Hindu Kush, and the spurs of the western Himalaya (Takhtajan 1986). Some areas, however, express the mixed character of their biogeographic connections with Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian elements, such as the Kopet Dagh and the Zagros mountains (Davis et al. 1995). The principal habitat in the hotspot is mountainous forest steppe that supports oak-dominant (Quercus spp.) deciduous forests in the west and south (Anatolia and Zagros mountains), and juniper (Juniperus spp.) forests in the east (southern slopes of the Elburz Mountains and the Kopet Dagh). The forest steppe occurs mainly between 700 m and the timberline (1 900 to 2 200 m). Primary forests are largely degraded, and mountainous secondary steppes now dominate the landscape where the dry forest is impoverished. A relatively wide zone of subalpine and alpine vegetation covers the mountain peaks above the timberline (Zohary 1973). Thorn-cushion (tragacanthic) formations are found in the subalpine zone. The alpine zone of the Cilo and Hakkâri mountains in Turkey holds permanent glaciers (Kılıç and Eken 2004).

There is a clear separation between mountainous flora (dry forest and montane steppe) and steppes of the plateaus (primary plain steppe). In the Zagros Mountains, the lower altitudes are dominated by Astragalus and Salvia spp., while in Elburz, a number of flowering plants, such as tulips (Tulipa spp.), irises (Iris spp.) and crocuses (Crocus spp.) occur. The primary steppes, characterized by the presence of Artemisia spp., occupy the fragmented plateaus in the hotspot. The largest stand of primary steppes extends along the Konya Closed Basin in Central Turkey, which also includes a unique complex of salt steppes and halophytic marshes. The core zone of such plateaus contains a salty or brackish lake occupying the lowest part of the closed basin and fed by streams of surrounding mountains (Eken and Magnin 1999). Various types of riparian forests stretch along the river valleys, dominated by species such as Salix spp. and others.

The human population mainly consists of Turkish, Kurdish, Persian, and Armenian people. Some other groups include Assyrians, Azeris, Turkmens, and Yezidis. Pastoral and truly nomadic cultures still exist in a number of parts of Turkey and Iran, and traditional animal farming (goat and sheep) is the main source of income for many rural communities. Most parts of the hotspot are not accessible during long winters when high passes are closed. This makes most of the region unsuitable for large-scale industrial investments or settlement.

Biodiversity

It is difficult to make an accurate estimate of vascular plant diversity in this hotspot, but there are at least 6 000 species. Of these, an estimated 2 500 are endemic. There are 332 species recorded as local endemics on the Kopet Dagh, while the Zagros Mountains have at least 500 local endemics (Davis et al. 1995). The highest level of endemism is evident in Turkey, where 1 220 species are endemic (Ekim et al. 2000). Several genera are largely confined or endemic to the hotspot, including Astragalus, Centaurea, Acantholimon, Onobrychis, Acanthocardamum, and Zerdana.

One of the most distinctive biodiversity features of this hotspot is known as the Anatolian Diagonal (Davis 1965–1985, 1971), a remarkable floristic line crossing Inner Anatolia. The Anatolian Diagonal runs from the southern foothills of the Eastern Black Sea Mountains in Turkey, through the Turkish part of the hotspot, and then splits into two branches: one reaches the Mediterranean via the Amanus Mountains and the other, via the Bolkar Mountains (Davis 1971). Approximately 390 plant species have distributions largely confined to the Anatolian Diagonal, including the monotypic genus Neotchihatchewia (N. isatidea) and Graellsia davisiana. Many of Turkey's other plant species occur only to the west or only to the east of this line (Ekim and Güner 1986). The origin of this diagonal is a point of discussion. Davis (1971) and Sonnenfeld (1974) emphasize paleogeographical factors, while Ekim and Güner (1986) attribute greater importance to ecological and climatic factors.

The hotspot also possesses a very diverse fauna, despite the fact that large portions are arid to semiarid. Two main factors are responsible for this richness and diversity. Firstly, the great variety of habitats ranging from alpine tundra and permanent snowfields down to semiarid plains, and from lush, humid deciduous forest in the north to sparse juniper scrub in the east and southeast. Secondly, the hotspot's position at a crossroads between three major faunal realms: the southern edge of the Palearctic realm, facing a small Afrotropical, and a strong Indo-Malayan influence in the south.

The Irano-Anatolian Hotspot is most remarkable for its avian diversity, which includes a substantial West Palearctic faunal element, including 81 species that reach the eastern extremity of their range in the hotspot, e.g., the blue tit (Parus caeruleus); and a smaller, but still marked, eastern Palearctic element, with 19 bird species reaching the westernmost tip of their ranges in the hotspot, e.g., the chestnut-breasted bunting (Emberiza stewarti). The alpine biome of the Elburz and Zagros mountains, as well as the higher peaks of mountain ranges in Iran and Turkey, support a montane fauna typical of all high mountain ranges from the Pyrenees and Alps in Western Europe to the Himalaya. Characteristic species include the lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus), horned lark (Eremophila alpestris), yellow-billed chough (Pyrrhocorax graculus), alpine accentor (Prunella collaris), wallcreeper (Tichodroma muraria), and whitewinged snowfinch (Montifringilla nivalis). The unique enclave breeding population of the white-winged scoter (Melanitta fusca) in the montane lakes of eastern Turkey has a Euro-Siberean biogeographic history (Ekim et al. 2000; Eken et al. 2000).

In the drier and more open mixed woodlands of pistachio (Pistacia), maple (Acer), and almond (Amygdalus) of the eastern Zagros, only a handful of western Palearctic species occur. Characteristic birds include a mixture of Middle Eastern species, e.g., the whitethroated robin (Irania gutturalis) and plain leaf-warbler (Phylloscopus neglectus); eastern Palearctic species, e.g., the rufous-tailed shrike (Lanius isabellinus) and Hume's whitethroat (Sylvia althaea); Indo-Malayan species, e.g., the bay-backed shrike (Lanius vittatus); and western Palearctic species at the extreme edge of their ranges, e.g., the Eurasian blackbird (Turdus merula). Finally, throughout the remote mountain ranges of Iran there still exist good stands of juniper (Juniperus) woodland, with species such as the fire-fronted serin (Serinus pusillus) and, in the northeast, the white-winged grosbeak (Mycerobas carnipes).

In total, there are at least 363 regularly occurring bird species in the hotspot, although none are endemic. However, a number of globally threatened birds have significant breeding populations in the hotspot, including the great bustard (Otis tarda, VU), marbled duck (Marmaronetta angustirostris, VU), white-headed duck (Oxyura leucocephala, EN), and imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca, VU). In addition, up to 25% of the known world population of the sociable plover (Vanellus gregarius, VU) stop over in the plateaus of Eastern Anatolia in autumn.

The wetlands of the spectacular Tuz, Van, and Urumiyeh basins in Turkey and Iran, centered on the very large and saline lakes, support important breeding colonies of waterfowl, notably the greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) (35 000–40 000 pairs; Lakes Tuz and Urumiyeh), great white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus) (1 000–1 600 pairs; Lake Urumiyeh), Eurasian spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia), and glossy ibis (Plegadis falcinellus). These wetlands are extremely important for shorebirds migrating along the African-Eurasian Flyway, such as the little stint (Calidris minuta) and ruff (Philomachus pugnax), and in mild winters can hold over 100 000 wintering ducks and geese.

The Caspian snowcock (Tetraogallus caspius), Armenian gull (Larus armenicus), and Radde's accentor (Prunella ocularis) are only found in the Irano-Anatolian and Caucasus hotspots. Furthermore, a large proportion of the world population of crimson-winged finch (Rhodopechys sanguinea), Finsch's wheatear (Oenanthe finschii), rufous-tailed wheatear (O. xanthoprymna), Upcher's warbler (Hippolais languida), white-throated robin, and eastern rock-nuthatch (Sitta tephronata) occur in the hotspot.

A total of at least 141 mammals in 77 genera are known from the hotspot. Of these, 10 are endemic, including Dalh's jird (Meriones dahli, EN), Anatolian vole (Microtus anatolicus), Dogramaci's vole (M. dogramacii), Nasarov's vole (M. nasarovi), the recently described M. qazvinensis from northern Iran, Urartsk mouse-like hamster (Calomyscus urartensis), Brandt's hamster (Mesocricetus brandti), Setzer's mouse-tailed dormouse (Myomimus setzeri), Schaub's myotis (Myotis schaubi, EN), and Hakkari mole (Talpa davidiana). As with birds, the mammal fauna is composed of species of varied origin, including the Asian subspecies of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus, CR), jungle cat (Felis chaus), leopard (Panthera pardus), striped hyaena (Hyaena hyaena), Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus, VU), goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa), and wild goat (Capra aegagrus, VU).

Reptiles are represented by at least 116 species, including 13 endemics, among them the Persian rat snake (Elaphe persica), Basoglu's racerunner (Eremias suphani), Van Lake lizard (Darevskia bendimahiensis), and Elburz lizard (Lacerta defilippii). There are four endemic species of the genus Vipera: the mountain viper (V. albizona, EN), restricted to the Kulmaç Dağı of central Anatolia, with a total range estimated to comprise about 20 km² of rocky slopes at 2 000 m altitude; Latifi's viper (V. latifi, VU), from the Elburz Mountains; Wagner's viper (V. wagneri, EN), which occurs near Lake Urumiyeh (Iran) and in Eastern Turkey; and Darevsky's viper (V. darevskii, CR), from the Djavakhk Mountain Range in northern Armenia.

Twenty-one amphibian species are represented in the region, four of which are endemic, all salamanders in the endemic genus Neurergus: N. crocatus (VU) from the vicinity of Beytussebap (Hakkari Province) in southeast Anatolia, the Kurdish region of northern Iraq, and also northwestern Iran;N. kaiseri (EN), which is endemic to Iran;N. microspilotus (VU), restricted to the Avroman Mountains on the Iraq-Iran-Turkey border, and N. strauchii (VU), which is known only from Mu, Bitlis, and Malatya provinces in Eastern Anatolia. Another interesting salamander species is the Persian mountain salamander (Batrachuperus persicus, VU), which is found in mountain streams on the Caspian slope of the Talesh and Alborz mountains of Iran.

There is a minimum of 90 freshwater fish species in the region, of which roughly 30 are endemic; these are mainly confined to closed-basin lakes and rivers —particularly the Konya Closed Basin, Van Lake Basin, and Urumiyeh Lake Basin. Several of these species are globally threatened, including Salmo platycephalus and Capoeta pestai.

The invertebrate fauna of this hotspot is not well known, but it is particularly rich for butterfly species, with at least 350 species estimated to occur. Information available for the Turkish part of the hotspot indicates that there are at least 240 species, of which 18 are endemic (Hesselbarth et al. 1995). Furthermore, the Kopet Dagh region has at least 20 endemic Noctuidae species (Ronkay et al. 1998). Some globally threatened species are also found in the region, including the cinquefoil skipper (Pyrgus cirsii, VU), the single-site endemic Polyommatus dama (EN), and the Apollo butterfly (Parnassius apollo, VU). In addition, the hotspot is known to be the richest part of the Palearctic region for scorpions, with 42 described species, of which at least 50% are thought to be endemic to the hotspot (Fet et al. 2000).

Flagship Species

The most obvious flagship species for this hotspot are the two large cats, namely the cheetah and tiger. The Caspian subspecies of the tiger (Panthera tigris virgata) was recently reported from the northern Zagros Mountains range in Turkey (Welch 2003). However, since the last confirmed individual of this subspecies was shot in 1970, in the same region, this latest record requires further investigation. Fortunately, this area has not developed appreciably since 1970, and the human population has dramatically decreased due to unsuitable economic and political conditions in this part of Turkey. An immediate survey is required in the region to confirm the presence of the tiger, although this appears to be extremely difficult, as large parts of the area are naturally inaccessible and the periphery of the few roads are covered by land mines.

The situation for the Asiatic cheetah is somewhat better, although only an estimated 60 Asiatic cheetahs still survive, all of them to the south of the Kopet Dagh in Iran's Great Salt Desert, the Dasht-e-Kavir. This ranks among the most arid cheetah habitat anywhere, and these animals mostly occur in the foothills and dry watercourses of desert massifs, where prey is more common than on the flats. With the calamitous decline of gazelles in Iran, the cheetahs now subsist on wild sheep, Persian wild goats, and perhaps hares. Local herders believe that cheetahs are rarely responsible for attacks on livestock, but even so cheetahs are sometimes killed when confused for leopards or other predators. This animal perhaps ranks as an odd choice for a flagship species, since the core population is outside the boundary of the hotspot, but is nonetheless considered worthy of mention here.

In historical times, the Irano-Anatolian Region between Turkey in the west and Turkmenistan in the east was inhabited by several subspecies of Asiatic wild ass. The onager or Persian wild ass (Equus hemionus onager) was found east of the Zagros Mountains and south of the Elburz and the Kopet Dagh. A few hundred onagers have survived in two populations in Iran, one of which, Bahram-e-Goor, falls within this hotspot. Another Critically Endangered subspecies of wild ass, known as the kulan, Transcaspian or Turkmenian wild ass (E. h. kulan), used to have its southwest extension along the northern foothills of the Kopet Dagh. However, the subspecies suffered a drastic decline in range and numbers due to poaching and, today, a single naturally occurring population remains in and around the Badkhyz Nature Reserve in south Turkmenistan, just marginally outside the hotspot (Feh et al. 2002).

The key flagship bird species for the large salt lakes is the greater flamingo, which in some years has extremely large breeding colonies in Iran and Turkey—between 35 000 and 40 000 pairs. The main breeding sites are Tuz Lake in Turkey and Lake Urumiyeh in Iran. Unfortunately, no breeding has occurred in Lake Urumiyeh since 2000 due to drought. On the other hand, Tuz Lake is still considered one of the most important flamingo breeding areas in the world. Since the 1970s, this lake has been regularly used by flamingos, and is home to the biggest breeding colony in Turkey. Recent surveys carried out over the area revealed that the number of chicks fluctuated between 4 000 in 1991 and 10 000 in 2000. However, there is also a negative trend (as evidenced by the decreasing numbers of chicks seen at the main crèche) in Tuz Lake that could be related to a sharp decrease in water levels. These lakes are the only major breeding site for this species in the vast area between the Camargue (France) and the Rann of Kutch (India). Archaeological evidence shows that the species has been breeding at Lake Urumiyeh for several thousand years. Ringing recoveries show that the birds of Lake Urumiyeh disperse as far west as Morocco and the Camargue, as far east as central India and Sri Lanka, and as far south as Somalia and Ethiopia.

The hotspot hosts an endemic genus of amphibians, Neurergus, with four species. These salamanders are extremely sensitive to environmental change because they live in marginal conditions in relation to the general dry climate of the Zagros Mountains. All four species are considered threatened, having undergone declines in abundance due to the effects of habitat destruction, pollution, and drought (Rastegar-Pouyani, in litt. 2003).

An endemic fish species, Chalcalburnus tarichi, has been used effectively as a flagship species by local conservation NGOs in the Van Province to trigger interest in conservation of the Van Lake Basin in Eastern Turkey. The rapid decline in the population of the species, which also has local commercial value, has directed the attention of local and national stakeholders towards the wider environmental problems of Van Lake. A number of conservation projects were initiated since then in the area to protect the basin.

Hundreds of single-locality endemic plants occur in Turkey, which are also threatened. Orchids are the most charismatic and the most threatened group, in part because they are still illegally collected in large quantities from the wild for the production of a popular traditional drink in Turkey called sahlep. Due to the rapid decline of orchids in Turkey, orchid collection has expanded to Iran.

The extremely localized salt plants of Anatolia and Iran are among the most outstanding plant species in the hotspot. They occur in the remaining salt steppes of the Irano-Anatolian closed basins. This vegetation type is characterized by halophytes of the families Chenopodiaceae and Plumbaginaceae. Most halophytes are C4 plants, in which the first products of photosynthesis are 4-carbon organic acids, unlike many other plant species. Most of these are fast-growing species having a high photosynthesis rate. They have adapted to extreme conditions of dry, saline soils with high temperatures and radiation, as well as water deficiency. In saline soils, only these physiologically specialized species can survive. The leaves of most of these are succulent or have thick cuticles. The root cells have a high osmotic pressure value to extract water from saline soils. Excess salt is either secreted or deposited in small sacs on the leaves. The following are among the rarest of Irano-Anatolian halophytes having extremely localized distributions: Gladiolus halophilus, Acantholimon halophilum, Ferula halophila, Asparagus lyconicus, Allium vuralii, Verbascum pyroliforme, Salvia halophila, Salsola stenoptera, Limonium iconicum, L. anatolicum, L. tamaricoides, Kalidopsis wagenitzii, Hypericum salsugineum, Onosma halophilum, and Taraxacum mirabile (Vural et al. 1999).

Threats

The single most important threat to the Turkish part of the hotspot is the development of irrigation schemes for agriculture and associated infrastructure, such as dams. The excessive use of water resources for sugarbeet agriculture in the Konya Closed Basin has resulted in the loss of many large steppe areas and closed basin lakes. Elsewhere, Lake Sevan in Armenia and the Javakheti mountain wetlands in Georgia have largely been destroyed. In the Ararat Valley alone, 1 500 km² of swamps have been drained and transformed into agricultural land. Other threats that have led to extensive habitat loss across the hotspot include overgrazing, overharvesting of woody plants (shrubs and trees) for fuelwood, and mining. Several highly publicized military operations have taken place in Iraq, Iran, and Turkey during the last few decades, resulting in loss of forests and wetlands (Evans 1994). In northern Iraq, the few remaining tracts of natural forests in the more isolated northern mountains are now probably nearly depleted, largely because of intensive wood-cutting exacerbated by the political situation there.

More than 90% of natural steppes in the region have disappeared (Eken and Magnin 1999), whereas the alpine meadows covering higher parts of mountains are largely intact. In the most humid parts of the region, the mountains of Eastern Turkey, the remaining forest is around 12% of its original coverage (Özhatay et al. 2003), but this seems to be much lower in drier parts; for instance, in Iraq, only 4% of natural forests remain (Evans 1994). The only pristine parts of the forested area are found on the inaccessible mountains of southeastern Turkey and in the neighboring territories of Iran. Recent analyses, including the use of satellite imagery, indicate that the overall percentage of vegetation that remains intact in the hotspot is around 15% (Doğa Derneği Research Unit in Turkey, in litt. 2004).

The doubling of the human population since the early 1970s, coupled with increased deforestation and overgrazing, has resulted in a decline in many species present in the hotspot. This has been particularly noticeable with the bustards. Due to the expansion of agriculture and crop-improvement projects, many steppe species, such as the great bustard, appear to have declined dramatically in Turkey and Iran since the 1970s. All the main sites for this species in Iran in the 1970s occurred within this hotspot, but many may no longer have any bustards (Evans 1994). Most of the large ungulates in the hotspot suffer from illegal hunting and habitat loss.

Conservation

According to the World Database on Protected Areas, only 6.2% of this hotspot has some form of legal protection, a percentage which is more than halved (2.9%) when one considers only those protected areas in IUCN categories I to IV. The largest protected area in the hotspot is the Tuz Lake Specially Protected Area in central Turkey, covering approximately 7 000 km²; it was recently proclaimed and still requires a management plan. The 4 000-km² Alborz-e-Markazi Reserve in the central Elburz Mountains is another large protected area, which extends towards the north into the Caucasus Hotspot. In Turkey, most protected areas are small, and not very well managed. In Iran, the largest protected area within the hotspot is Urumiyeh Lake National Park (4 640 km²), although there are a number of sizable protected areas in the Zagros Mountains, including Arjan Biosphere Reserve (528 km²). In Armenia, the principal protected areas within the hotspot are Sevan National Park, as well as the Khosrov, Dilijan, and Shikahogh State Reserves. The Kopet Dagh region is reasonably well covered by a number of protected areas, of which the Meana-Chaachinskiy Sanctuary is the largest (600 km²). All countries in the hotspot are party to the Ramsar Convention (with the exception of Iraq) and World Heritage Convention. There are nine Ramsar sites in the hotspot: two in the Turkish part (the Sultansazligi Marshes and the Seyfe Lake), five in Iran (Urumiyeh Lake, Kobi Lake, Dorgeh Sangi Lakes, Parishan Lake, and Neriz Lakes) and two in Armenia (Lakes Sevan and Arpi). Turkey is currently in the process of declaring at least five new Ramsar sites in the hotspot, based on recent scientific inventories of the country's most important biodiversity sites.

An important new concept being tested in the region is that of Key Biodiversity Areas, which represent the most important sites for biodiversity conservation worldwide. Turkey is one of the few countries, and perhaps the first in the world, which has identified both Important Bird Areas and Key Biodiversity Areas. Many Key Biodiversity Areas in Turkey are not well protected (85%), although forests and wetlands are relatively better represented in protected areas than the more extensive and homogeneous habitats such as steppes and alpine. In Turkey, the Turkish Nature Society (Doğa Derneği) has initiated a national conservation program for all Key Biodiversity Areas in collaboration with governmental institutions and other NGOs. Although there is a large gap in legal protection, most of the key sites for conservation have been documented, paving the way for their protection in the future. Currently, Turkey has 18 different categories of protected areas under nine different laws, but these will be harmonized by the end of 2005 through the new Nature Conservation Law.

During the past five years, a strong grassroots movement for nature conservation has developed in Turkey, particularly among university students and local NGOs throughout the country. Furthermore, accession to the European Union is likely to increase enforcement of nature conservation laws, as well as help to expand the protected area network that currently has major gaps in terms of coverage and management efficiency.

The Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act (1974) is the main law dealing with nature conservation in Iran. Coverage of all the major habitat types in the four main types of protected areas recognized in Iran is considered to be good, reflecting the large amount of fieldwork that has been carried out in the last 30 years. The Commission on Environmental, Economic, and Social Policy of IUCN is based in Iran, and there are also a number of other NGOs focusing on the conservation of flagship species in the country. Since the discovery of the small population of the Persian subspecies of the fallow deer (Dama dama mesopotamica) in the western foothills of the Zagros Mountains in the 1950s, reintroduction and captive-breeding projects have been initiated in northwestern Iran. However, by 1988, the last wild population was on the verge of extinction, and individuals were taken to establish a semicaptive herd of 140 deer there. A captive-breeding group was also established in Germany, and individuals from there were sent to a reserve in Israel.

There is apparently no legislation to protect sites for biodiversity conservation in Iraq. There are a number of wild animal breeding stations, each of a few hundred hectares, but with little significance for in situ conservation of wildlife. Responsibility for the management of the natural environment in Iraq lies with the Ministry of Agriculture. In the past, that ministry has issued temporary bans on hunting, but with minimal enforcement. In Iraq, a National Forest Foundation has been established, partly to protect the remaining forests in the Zagros region. There are several nature parks in Iraq that are principally state-owned areas for public recreation, but with no wildlife management.

Turkmenistan is a relatively new, independent state and is in the process of developing its environmental laws. Although existing nature reserves are contributing significantly to the overall protection of the Kopet Dagh's diverse woodlands, they often lack effective management (Pereladova et al. 1997). The Turkmenistan Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan was published in 2002 (Ministry of Nature Protection of Turkmenistan 2002). Relevant laws include “On Nature Protection in Turkmenistan” (adopted in 1991), “On State Specially Protected Areas” (1992), and the “Provision on Hunting and Hunting Regulations” (1995).

Lack of expertise in nature conservation is the main limiting factor throughout the hotspot, and this problem has to be addressed immediately to elevate its overall conservation status. The protected area networks in Iraq and Turkey require prompt expansion, building on sites that are known to be important for global biodiversity (e.g., Key Biodiversity Areas and Important Bird Areas). Furthermore, better management of protected areas is required throughout the hotspot. Although protected legally, several globally important sites are severely threatened and could be lost if urgent conservation action is not taken. Perhaps the most intact and endemic-rich part of the hotspot is the northern part of the Zagros Mountains —the area where Turkey, Iraq, and Iran meet. Unfortunately, this area has hosted several military operations for many years. At the same time, however, the region's globally important biodiversity might offer options for international collaboration in alleviating poverty and achieving a lasting peace. In most areas of the hotspot, there is great potential for direct participation by local people in nature conservation, as most of the region's indigenous communities maintain their traditional lifestyles and keep practicing what are perhaps the most sustainable ways of using natural resources in this part of the world. Agriculture, hydropower energy, and forestry are the key sectors that need to be tackled on a landscape level and harmonized with the principles of biodiversity conservation.

Given that it is situated in such a politically sensitive area, the Irano-Anatolian Hotspot is perhaps among the least surveyed hotspots. Yet, even the existing scarce information indicates the importance of this region for global biodiversity conservation. If the status of this hotspot's biodiversity is to be improved, strong international cooperation will be essential.

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